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The Far-Reaching Influence of the English Language

As globalization takes hold of our collective society, the English language is quickly becoming the universal language for many reasons. For one, business across borders as well as over the internet, whether it is conducted by small companies or multi-national corporations is largely conducted in English. Global politics and diplomacy are largely conducted in English as well. In fact, English is the world’s second largest native language, the official language in 70 countries, and English-speaking nations are responsible for about 40 percent of the world’s total Gross National Product. Part of this can be attributed to the USA’s status as a major world power in economic, political and military aspects and by the huge influence of American movies.

The Internet

The internet was developed chiefly in America, and whether that is an influential factor or not, the majority of Web sites and Web pages are in English. People from all over the world access these English-language sites on a daily basis. This indicates that there are a many people all over the world who can at least read minimal amounts of English – enough to browse the Web.

Popular Culture

English can be at least understood on at least some level almost everywhere in the world among scholars and educated people. The English language is also widely recognized as the world’s media language, and the chief language of cinema, TV, pop music and as aforementioned, the computer world. All over the planet, even people who don’t necessarily speak the language know many English words, their pronunciation and meaning.

Countries Where English is Taught in School

Because of the English language’s far-reaching popularity and use all over the world, many non-English speaking countries are now introducing English lessons in their public and/or private school systems. Some of the countries that include the English language in their school curriculum do so for one or more of the reasons mentioned above. Other countries are simply forward-thinking in that they can see a degree of universality to the language that will offer its students greater opportunity. Other countries have their own, unrelated reasons for teaching English in their schools. No matter what the motivation, below is a list of countries that currently offer English as a second language in their schools:

- Asia

- People’s Republic of China

- Japan

- South Korea

- Taiwan

- Singapore (English is taught as a first language here)

- India

- Nepal

- Middle East and North Africa

- United Arab Emirates

- Kuwait

- Oman

- Egypt (English is mandatory from the 4th grade on)

- European Union

- Austria

- Belgium

- Bulgaria

- Cyprus

- Czech republic

- Denmark

- Estonia

- Finland

- France

- Germany

- Greece

- Hungary

- Ireland

- Italy

- Latvia

- Lithuania

- Luxembourg

- Malta

- The Netherlands

- Poland

- Portugal

- Romania

- Slovakia

- Slovenia

- Spain

- Sweden

- United Kingdom

- Latin America

- Argentina

- Chile

- Columbia

- Costa Rica

- Guatemala

- Honduras

- Mexico

- Panama

- Venzuela

Conclusion

As you can see, English is increasingly being taught to elementary, middle school and high school students all over the world. In many of the schools in the countries listed above English is either mandatory, or offered as a foreign language study much like Spanish and French are taught in the U.S. In other countries, English is offered as an option to those elite members of society who are in the position to pay for private school or tutoring.

Speaking more that one language is very common these days. Learning English as a second language at your own pace can be accomplished in your own environment with online online English schools courses.

The Jupiter Of The Life Insurance Heavens

At the meeting of the Board of Directors, on October 7, 1891, John R. Hegeman, the affable and capable colleague of Mr. Knapp, was elected to the Presidency of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. Haley Fiske, who was to carry the chief burdens of administration for nearly 40 years, was made Vice President.

For a decade prior to 1891 he had handled the legal affairs of the Metropolitan in the office of the company’s counsel, Arnoux, Ritch, and Woodford, and in that capacity had worked closely with the officers and had acquired a thorough knowledge of the life insurance (http://www.equote.com/li/termlifeinsurance.html) business. Mr. Knapp, two years before, had urged young Mr. Fiske to join the ranks of the company. This was not feasible at the time, but Mr. Knapp did arrange that on his death Mr. Fiske was to take on the administrative responsibilities of the organization.

Mr. Hegeman, as President, was to attend to financial problems, and to be the spokesman for the company in its relations with the public. In this regard, his picturesque and gracious personality was a distinct asset. It was agreed to let the task of management fall on the shoulders of the younger, harder hitting man. From 1891 to 1929 Mr. Fiske, first as Vice President and later as President, was the dominant force in the Metropolitan.

The president of a fellow company termed him the “Jupiter of Life Insurance Heavens.” His forcefulness was akin to thunderbolts. To him as much as to any single man, the Metropolitan owes its eminence and ability to produce no medical exam term life insurance to the insurance world. Nor was his influence limited to his own company. His vigorous personality and his constructive intelligence left their indelible mark upon the whole institution of life insurance in America.

Haley Fiske was born in New Brunswick, N. J., on March 18, 1852. His father was a blacksmith and, later, a foundryman; his mother, a keen witted woman known for her fine spiritual qualities. She inspired reverence in her son and evidently played a large part in giving direction to his life. Young Fiske attended Rutgers College, and although he made no particular mark as a student his fine personality stood out; his carriage and courteous bearing brought him the sobriquet Sir Haley.

In a real sense, he was Sir Haley for the rest of his life to all who knew him. His first job was as a local newspaperman, but at the same time he studied law with Judge Woodbridge Strong. Early in May of 1873 he entered the New York office of Arnoux, Ritch, and Woodford as a clerk. He advanced rapidly and soon became an outstanding figure in the firm. Young Fiske, it was noted, possessed an amazing astuteness and sound judgment.

The firm made him its trial lawyer, and his eloquence was such that even the famous Colonel Bob Ingersoll met defeat at his hands. Vigorous and incisive, he put his teeth into every thing he did. He was assigned by his firm to handle the increasingly important affairs of the Metropolitan, and thus made himself expert in life insurance problems and, more particularly, in those pertaining to the industrial business.

Mr. Fiske became Vice President of the Metropolitan before his 40th birthday, and soon became the dominating personality in the management of virtually all departments. He was unmistakably “Boss.” He looked into every detail of office management from life insurance rates (http://www.equote.com/info/life-insurance-info.html) to individual policies. He required frequent and detailed reports from his heads of departments; claims were reported to him daily. Under his militant direction the rapidly growing home office was galvanized into an even more efficient organization.

He inaugurated the “Triennial Conventions,” where he personally reported on the company to the Field Force in every State in the Union and in every Province in Canada in which it did business. He gathered together the district superintendents and agents for personal instruction. A naturally gifted speaker, he acquired, with the years, an extraordinary eloquence which he used in moving descriptions of the program of the company and its increasing contributions to the public welfare. He was at once administrator, chief salesman, and ambassador of good will.

Sarah Martin is a freelance marketing writer based out of San Diego, CA. She specializes in the history of life insurance, business, and finance. For life insurance rates or no medical exam term life insurance, please visit http://www.equote.com/.

Interesting Facts About The Atlas

An atlas is a collection of maps in the form of a book. There are different kinds of atlases available in the market today.

A collection of maps bound into book form is called an ATLAS. There are also atlases in various multimedia formats today. It has geographic features and political boundaries. An atlas usually features:

- Geopolitics

- social aspects

- religious traditions and

- economic statistics

Claudius Ptolemy, a geographer, constructed from his calculation the first book of atlas. He worked in Alexandria in 150 A.D. In 1477, his first edition was published in Bologna. It was illustrated with a set of 27 maps. This means it was not known then whether these maps were original engraved versions or otherwise.

In 1544, trading centers in Rome and Venice produced many maps. The publishers worked separately and produced maps based on their needs. These maps vary in sizes and later on, they bound them together into composite works. These works were called IATO or Italian, Assembled to Order. It was more often called Lafreri Atlases.

Abraham Ortelius was recognized in issuing the first modern atlas in May 20, 1570. The Theatrum Orbis Terrarum of Ortelius has about 53 map-sheets. It actually covers the whole world. This work reduced the available maps into a uniform size.

Gerardo Mercator introduced the earliest atlases in 1595.

The word ATLAS is a common basis of mistaken belief. This is because two mythical figures are connected with the making of maps.

- King Atlas – the mythical king of Mauretania.

A great philosopher, mathematician and astronomer based on legend who allegedly made the first celestial globe. It was possibly Mercator’s atlas that the legend was referring to. This was when “Atlas” was first coined. This was also where even a description of the King on the title page was included.

- Atlas (from Greek Mythology) - He is the son of Titan Iapetus and Clymene (or Asia). He is also the brother of Prometheus.

Atlas was punished by Zeus so as to bear the weight of the heavens on his back. In Homer’s Odyssey, he refers to Atlas as the one who knows the depths of the whole sea. He kept the tall pillars that hold the Heavens and the Earth.

In arts, Atlas is represented as the one carrying the heavens or the Celestial Sphere on his shoulders. The earliest representation is the Farnese Atlas. You will see this at Museo Archeologico Nazionale Napoli in Naples, Italy. This figure is more often found on the cover or title-page of atlases.

In modern times, publishers in different countries can reprint maps from different places. Maps displaying roads and transport links are known as Road Atlases. These show transport links and not geographical information.

Road Atlases come in many shapes, sizes and scales. It has motoring organizations in:

- UK

- Republic of Ireland

- Mainland Europe

- North America

- Australia and

- New Zealand

There are different styles of maps, depending on individual countries on a large scale. Thus, it is the user who can find this more useful for them. An example of this is the AA’s Close-up map of Britain. The map is of a large scale. It is good for driving on and off road. The scale helps place tracks and conventional roads.

European maps differ in scales as well. When people buy maps of Europe they also need to consider where they are traveling to. Thus, maps are sold in the United States and Canada, having scales that more often the best. These maps can be used for businesses. It can also be used either by tourists or just for general interest.

Australian and New Zealand maps have smaller scale. It is made to be sold for the European market. It was made by motoring organizations or map makers. This was made so that they will have an advantage on knowing the layouts of:

- Roads

- railways and

- rivers

For more information on Reading A Road Atlas please visit our website.

Which is Easier to Learn: English or Spanish

With such a large Hispanic population, there are many first, second or third generation Spanish speaking Latinos in the United States. In addition to that, there are thousands of visitors to the U.S., whether they are tourists, business people or students from Latin America or Spain. With such a large group of Spanish-speaking people here, many wonder whether it is easier to learn English or Spanish. You may wonder this because you have friends or family that speaks Spanish and you are considering learning yourself. If you are from Hispanic descent or just simply know how to speak Spanish as well as English, you may be planning on raising your child or children bilingual. If this is the case, you might be wondering if it is more beneficial to start teaching one language prior to teaching the other or vice versa. No matter the reason, if you’re wondering if it’s easier to learn English or Spanish, we will examine some factors that may help you answer this question.

What Makes One Harder and One Easier?

Unfortunately there is not cut and dry answer to which one is easier to learn or even to what makes one language harder to learn than another language. A lot of what makes a language easy or difficult to learn depends on the individual involved. Some of the factors in this regard include:

- The Individual’s Native Language

If the person learning a new language is an adult, young person or child who already has some sort of language skills, that individual’s native language will probably be the single most influential factor in whether Spanish or English is easier to learn. Languages that are similar to one’s native tongue will be easier, and ones that have little to no relation will be more difficult. For example, people who speak French and Italian will probably have an easier time learning Spanish, while those who speak Germanic languages such as Dutch and German will find English easier to learn.

- Related Languages

Most people will have an easier time learning the language that is related in origins to a language they already speak. Related languages share many characteristics and this will often make them easier to learn. These similar characteristics can make for fewer new concepts to deal with, whether they have to do with style, grammar or usage.

Popular Opinion: English vs. Spanish

Popular opinion, as dictated by a few recent Yahoo Answers polls, seems to indicate that English is a bit more difficult to learn than Spanish. The chief reason given for this conclusion is that the English language is more complicated is the fact that it is full of nuances that are particular to any given case. Examples were given where people whose native language is English still have a hard time mastering the language because o f this reason. Other factors cited for why English may be a more difficult language to learn than Spanish include sentence structure, pronunciation and punctuation. Meanwhile, the top reason cited as Spanish being difficult to learn was conjugation of verbs.

Conclusion

The conclusion is that there is no definitive answer. Whether Spanish or English is easier to learn is truly in the eye of the beholder. It really does depend a lot on the person actually taking on the new language. So if you find yourself as in the case of the example given at the beginning of this article, debating whether to teach your child English or Spanish first, why not try both? Or, start out with either first. But if you have the option, teach them a second language soon…while they’re still young.

Speaking more that one language is very common these days. Learning English as a second language at your own pace can be done in your own environment with online English schools courses. ******

Pros and Cons of Home Schooling

Home schooling is a viable option now for both parents and kids. There are many varying opinions on this form of learning. Some feel that it is not a good choice while others are encouraging it. Whether or not home schooling is right for your children is up to you. Taking a look at the pros and cons of home schooling might help you make the decision. It’s important to get your kids involved in this type of decision making as well.

One con of home schooling is that it does not allow kids an awful lot of interaction with other children. Activities like recess and after school sports are missed out on as well as fun stuff like field trips. Kids do need to spend time with others their own age. It wouldn’t be healthy to spend all of their time at home.

A pro is that there is more free time available when home schooling to work on other things. For example, some kids may complete their daily workload in less time than they would in a structured classroom. This allows them the rest of the day to do what they like or get ahead in their school work.

Slacking off may be a big con. When there is no teacher to scold you, it may become easier to slack off on the work being done. Being at home comes with temptations such as the television or the internet. Some kids may find that they are just too distracted to work and learn effectively at home.

The ability to learn at your own pace is certainly a pro. Not everyone learns at the same rate of success. Very fast or very slow learners might find they really prefer to work at home because it allows them to set the pace rather than struggling to match the class outlined pace. This is especially helpful when it comes to those problem areas that slow some people down. Being able to stop and work through it makes a big difference.

There are many great aspects associated with school that could be missed if one were to learn at home. Prom is one big part of school that many spend years looking forward to. Missing the prom is just one thing. Sports and other extra curricular projects that one does through school, such as yearbook, do not exist at home.

Parents might find that they are happier with the kids learning at home because it gives them a chance to be more involved in their child’s development and learning process. This can be beneficial for parents and kids since it eliminates the void of parents not knowing what their kid is doing at school. It also gives parents the chance to be part of teaching their kids rather than handing the reigns over to someone else.

Choosing to home school is a big decision. Make to involve your kids in it and allow them to think over the options. The choice should be something you make together.

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Character Education: Elementary Vs. High School

Character Education: Whose Job Is It? While elementary and middle school teachers often work with students on critical but non-academic issues of Character and Values education, such as getting along, behaving appropriately, being respectful, honesty, cooperating, and so forth, high school teachers have a tendency not to work on these issues.

According to Dr. Andrew Milson in the Journal of Research in Character Education (Vol. 1, Number 2,2003), many elementary school teachers feel that values and character based teaching should be combined along with subject-oriented teaching and learning. High school teachers on the other hand, tend not to have a strong sense of self-efficacy in relation to teaching character education. They often feel that they don’t know how to “do” character education and if they did try it, they feel they probably would not have a real impact on their students.

Milson (2003) cites studies which indicate that high school teachers who have only had character education pedagogy during their pre-service training, or who only have university-delivered character education training, feel less confident about being able to teach character development. In contrast, teachers who have attended conferences or had staff development sessions on character education express a greater sense of confidence about being able to teach these critical skills to their students.

It makes sense, then, that schools and districts attempt to provide sessions on character education in the form of staff development, in particular focusing on strategies and programs that address issues that teachers are currently experiencing in their classrooms, rather than theory or abstract ideas.

Teachers can also benefit from learning how to incorporate elements of character education through their regular curriculum. Character education can contribute to a psychologically healthy classroom environment as well as increased achievement among students. It can also set the stage for mutual respect in the classroom. This respect can reduce the amount of time usually spent on disciplinary issues, and focus the class time back on learning the curriculum.

When teachers get practical information on how to incorporate character education into what they already do, they can become more confident about following through and reaping the benefits of character education.

Hal Urban, a successful teacher in a multiethnic public school for 35 years shares the importance of character education at home and in the classroom. He begins his presentation by quoting Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. “Intelligence is not enough. Intelligence plus character – that is the goal of true education.”

Urban states, “The best news of all is that we now have solid research to prove that schools with an effective character education program promote higher academic standards. Yes, this even means higher scores on standardized tests. The reason is simple: an environment of mutual respect results in a better place for teachers to teach and a better place for students to learn.”

Utilizing an integrated character education program that emphasizes modeling and incorporating character education throughout the day is the best way to teach the students the value of character. Just as important is a support system for teachers that included staff development training and sessions that focus on specific implementation strategies, demonstrating how character traits can be integrated into the curriculum.

Marilyn Etzel is a volunteer for Building Good Citizens for Texas. Find out how “Building Good Citizens for Texas” can easily implement an integrated Character Education Program in your Elementary or High School by visiting Texas Character Education.

Why You Need to Learn Spanish?

So what is the reason you have why you would like to learn to speak Spanish or a foreign language? Is it because it is a highly needed skill in your work? Maybe you are planning to visit a Spanish speaking country for your next vacation. Or you just want to learn something new to that will add enjoyment in your everyday life. Whatever reasons you have in your mind, you know that learning Spanish language is becoming more and more popular nowadays.

Every person has its own reason in learning a new language. And learning Spanish is no different. Although there are many different reasons why people are learning Spanish, it varies from every person. Maybe your reasons to learn Spanish are different from ours, you can find by reading below the most common reasons why people are learning the Spanish language.

For workplace

As you may know, one of the most common reasons why people are learning the Spanish language is because it is a much needed skill in their workplace. With so many Spanish speakers, some employers are not willing to employ people who are not fluent in at least two different languages. Being multilingual is now more being wanted skill in any job workplace. Many skilled workers are still going back to school to learn some of the most popular languages in the world, such as Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, French, and even Russian. Needless to say, being able to speak one or more of these popular languages will make you an indispensable employee in your workplace and you will have a high demand for employers.

For Pleasure

Another common reason why people are learning Spanish is to be able to speak the language of natives when they go for a vacation. And one of the most popular destination spots is those Spanish speaking language countries. These include: Spain, Mexico, Cuba, Brazil, and other South American countries, just to list a few. These countries are becoming popular tourists’ spots; and their native language is becoming highly fashionable to learn, so as to better enjoy time spent there.

For the sake of learning a Foreign Language

Third common reason for learning Spanish is just for the pleasure of learning something new. Most of the time, we become bored in our everyday lives, and learning something new, just like learning the Spanish language, is a great way to add joy to our lives. Perhaps not one of the most popular reasons for learning Spanish, just doing it for the fun of it sure ranks number one our books.

Although there would be many other reasons why people are learning to speak the Spanish language, it will definitely vary from person to person. But learning a foreign language is a great way to break out the everyday boring routine. Whether you want to learn to speak Spanish to make yourself a valuable tool in your workplace, to make your next vacation more enjoyable, or just because you would like to break the boring routine and learn something new; learning Spanish language is such another great way to add useful knowledge to your life.

John Platiko is a learn to speak Spanish lover and uses some of the most popular and effective Spanish courses available like Pimsleur Spanish Audio.

How To Learn To Speak French

French is one of the most popular languages in the world and because of that a lot of people are usually interested in learning how to speak it. But the problem some people usually face is that they do not know how to learn it and this can be very frustrating. The good thing though is that there are a lot of ways to learn how to speak French some of which are available online and some of which are available offline. This article would look at some of the ways to learn how to learn to speak French.

The first way to learn to speak French is by going to a local college near where you live that teaches French and the good thing about this method is that if you go to a good college you might actually receive a certificate at the end of the program but if you are just looking to learn how to speak a little about the language then this method might not be for you, it would be better for you to learn it by yourself or get someone who knows how to speak French to teach you.

For those people who do not have any local colleges near where they live or do not have the time to go to an actual college because of family and work commitments, you can also enrol for online classes which are now offered by a lot of schools. This method is good because you can do it from the comfort of your home as long as you have a computer with you.

You can also learn how to speak French by using audios, some of which are available for free online and some of which you have to pay for. The good thing about audio is that you would be able to hear how each word is spoken and if you are someone who likes to listen and learn you can always put the lessons on your ipod and learn how to speak the language as you go to work or school or during your free time. This method can sometimes be frustrating especially if you get stuck trying to pronounce some words well, as they would be no one to help you get it right.

Language learning software is another good way to learn to speak French and this one just usually requires a one time fee for you to download it to your computer and if you get a good one it would also come with games, audios as well as transcripts to make learning easy and fun. The good thing about this method is that you can use the software wherever you are and however you want as long as you have your computer with you, but this method requires a lot of commitment if you are going to learn how to speak it as they would be no teacher or exams to pressure you to learn the language or use the software.

All things considered, there are many other way to learn to speak French such as immersion or hiring a tutor to teach you personally. But whichever way you choose, just ensure that you are committed and dedicated to learning how to speak this language and you should have no problems.

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The Early Histories of the Ancient Celts (Part 2)

The basic sanctuary was the home and the hearth, often only family members could approach the hearth. These were in most cases highly decorated and contained many fire tools; it was their centre, each family performing rites, sacrifices to the ‘House God’, to protect the house and family. The many fire tools were for sacrifice of garlanded rams and horses, ready to feed the Gods and people.

The hearth was used for banquets, with elaborate utensils for eating, as found through archaeology. The best record of the banquet was by Posidonius, quoted by Athenaeus; the Celts sitting on dried grass, with their meals on slightly raised wooden tables. The food consisting of some small bread loaves and a large amount of meat. The meat being bitten off the limbs whilst being held in both hands, sitting in a circle with the leader, or the most influential in the middle, with the next in superiority next to him and so on.

The Celts often fought each other in hand-to-hand mock battles, which could lead to death when they got out of hand, unless separated by the others. In the earliest times, the hind quarters were often fought over to show bravery, often to the death.

It was at the feast or banquet that ‘Gifts’ were made. This was a redistribution of wealth, with an elaborate debt structure binding all the members together. Receivers of ‘Gifts’ repaying the giver in kind, loyalty and service, in the extreme the recipients life could be the repayment. This system of ‘Clientage’ has been documented in myth and the ancient laws of Ireland and Wales.

The Celts feasted with burial items for the ‘Otherworld’. These are known from Irish and Welsh mythology, Manannan’s Feast of Wisdom, the Feast of Bran’s head with companions, Giobniu’s Feast where the participants neither aged or died. Otherworld Feasts usually featured an ever full cauldron, or reincarnating animals to be slain again the following day. Flagons of wine with drinking vessels, animals with hearth implements were left as ‘Grave Foods.’

The Cult

In the very earliest times, the King or Queen held sacred power. As part of their sovereignty, they would have done divination, carried out sacrifices, identified sacred springs, natural features, and religious duties for the Clan, including becoming the ultimate sacrifice in times of trouble, according to mythical sources.

The Continental Celts were beginning to build cities from 200 BC, leading to secular administration by judges. Some cities were built around commercial centres, others around sanctuaries and schools of religion, and some around military strongholds. The archaeologists still have some way to give us civic rituals of this period.

The enclosure with ditch and maybe a wooden fence was the most common form of settlement around 500 BC-250 BC. There would have been interior pits and posts for sacred spaces and sacrifices, interior wooden buildings would have followed. It is document these sites with items made from wood, and many sanctuaries dismantled and hidden by their worshippers upon conquest. The post holes can give a good key to the archaeologists. Further problems were in the fact that the sites were often built upon in the building of Romano Celtic temples, but since the form of the temples was similar, just the materials used in construction different, amalgamation was not difficult.

Most of the Romano-Celtic Temples had a central sanctuary surrounded by a covered walkway within a precinct enclosed by walls and ditches, though some had additional buildings and divided sanctuaries. These buildings were not for congregational worship, with their small shrines for statues of their Gods and sacred symbols. They had openings for the worshippers to view the items in the sanctuary, any large gatherings were held in the courtyard enclosure. The sanctuary enclosures were normally rectangular, with the occasional round one. They were dedicated to a specific God with particular requirements, with posts, lintels, gates and other features of the wood fence were highly decorated, carved, painted and hung with offerings. The entrance was a very important feature. In early ditch enclosures there was a break in the ditch, fences forming gates, with monumental porticos. At Gournay in France, on the footbridge over the ditch the entrance was hung with human skulls, and two large heaps of cow skulls and weapons were stacked on each side of the ditch. These were probably the result of retaining successive decorations.

A post, pit or building would have indicated the centre of the sanctuary. Being closest to the Otherworld and farthest from the outer world, a line of posts with directional and astronomical significance were aligned around the centre. The size of the pit and number of pits were determined by the size of the settlement. One site in Czechoslovakia was 11 x 8 x 2 metres deep. Many pits were 10 pits grouped in threes, with one central pit. Sacrifices occurring in the central pit, with sacrificial animals being placed in the smaller pits to decompose, and then thrown into the perimeter ditch. It was a common belief in the ancient world for these pits to be seen as entrances to the Underworld.

The entrance to a city was an particularly important ritual area. In many British hill forts, ritual pits have been found at the entrance and along the main track way, with horses, humans, and more rarely dogs buried there. It is not clear whether the human burials are sacrificial of deposition.

The writer Strabo, tells us how Celtiberians worshipped an unnamed God at full moon; ‘They perform their devotions in company with all their families in front of the gates of their townships, and hold dances lasting throughout the night.’

Other classical writers mentioned the practice of choosing a figure within the community. They were kept richly for a year, before being ritually killed to cleanse the people from evil spirits. As the original source of this evidence is lost, it is difficult to say where this act took place, but one writer places it at Marseilles, France.

Shrines were built along borders where rituals could take place before going into battle, and for thanks giving after victory. Often sacrifices were promised before the battle and were carried out at these shrines. There are many alters dedicated to various Gods with inscriptions reading how the named person ‘gladly and willingly fulfils his vow’, only rarely however do they specify what the God had done for them.

Before being influenced by the Mediterranean cultures, the Celts did not attribute their Gods to a particular being. There were statues of boars, horses, bulls, bears, birds etc, long before there were any ones featuring humans. We do not know whether the people saw the animals as symbolic of the forces of nature, or whether there were attributes of the animals revered as being associated with the Gods. Some Gods later given human form are inextricably linked to specific animals; Epona with horses, Cernunnos with stags, Artio with bears and Arduinna with boars.

At Gournay-sur-Aronde there is a huge collection of animal bones, the horses and cattle are elderly and show no signs of butchering, whilst the pigs and sheep were young and consumed. Maybe the horses and cattle were revered and brought to the site for ritual burial.

At South Cadbury Camp near Glastonbury (England) there were horse skulls, all carefully buried right side up.

For more celtic articles, information and celtic crosses please visit realalternativesite.com

The Early Histories of the Ancient Celts (Part 1)

Celtic describes a language group which over a period of time divided into two strains:

P-Celtic (Brythonic) spoken in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany.

Q-Celtic (Gaelic) spoken today in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.

The ancient Celts were communities of people sharing linguistic and cultural ties, who inhabited most of Northern Europe between 800 BC and 400 AD. The Iron Age Celtic communities spread from Ireland to the Eastern Europe at the peak of their expansion from 400 BC-300 BC.

Archeological map of distribution of the Celtic Hallstatt culture ca. 800 -400 BCE. The Hallstat culture 800 BC-250 BC named after a site at Hallstat in Austria, they ranged from the Paris Basin to the valley of Morava in Eastern Europe, and from the Alps to the North European plain. Early burials (800 BC- 600BC) show small cemeteries denoting small settlements, perhaps one family or a small group of related families. The graves show little wealth, a few graves with wagons and horse equipment, but most as warriors both male and female with their swords, a few personal ornaments and pots containing food.

Between 600 BC–450 BC aristocratic burials start to appear, associated with much larger residences with architecture inspired by the Greeks, and Mediterranean artefacts begin to appear in graves. The overall leader or chief being accompanied in a wooden chamber with the wagon and horse equipment, filled with imported items, bronze wine drinking vessels, silk, gold, amber, glass and coral. The individual ‘vassal’ chief with wagon filled with more locally made goods, and ‘sub-chiefs’ similar, but less elaborately furnished with totally locally produced items. This prestige system of burials was widespread from Burgundy to the settlements of the middle Rhine. This unstable system based solely of imports and exports, as its core, threw up warrior societies, whose wealth came from raiding the settled traders. Along with the growth in population among the tribes and political changes within the Mediterranean area, this caused collapse, and the Celtic migrations began around 400 BC.

The ‘La Tene’ culture, known for its elaborate artwork, coincided with the last 50 years of the Hallstat culture, and this culture was carried forward in migration. Warrior bands moved south and east towards the rich pickings of the peoples whom they had traded with. Rome was attacked in 369 BC and continued into Italy, Delphi being attacked in 279 BC, and eastward roving bands continued into Asia minor. Migrations due to population growth continued throughout the next few hundred years.

The migration attempt of the ‘Helvetii’ was halted during the eight year war with Caesar’s Rome, as hundreds of thousands of Celts were killed, sold into slavery or maimed. After his victory Caesar went back to Rome; Gaul and Britain were left alone for 15 years. When the Roman emperors later began to set up an administration, most of southern and eastern Gaul was brought within the Roman empire fairly easily, as the Celts in this region had already established a sedimentary lifestyle, and a trade based economic system. The further borders of the Roman Empire remained in a state of flux for sometime, with the constant pressure from the so called ‘Germanic’ tribes pressing in from the east, which finally contributed to the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. The term ‘Germanic’ was termed by Caesar who called anybody north of the Rhine ‘Germanic’, and anybody south of the Rhine ‘Celtic’. Archaeology makes it clear that while there were two different material cultures, with different house building and burial styles, they were much more intermixed than Caesar’s simplistic geographical divisions would indicate.

There were differences between the religious practices of European and the British Celtic peoples. The south of England which was settled by the Belgic peoples is more closely tied to the Continent, while northern England has more unique deities and practices. Ireland had even less contact with Europe and maintained its culture the longest. The Continental Celts had been influenced by the Mediterranean cultures, with their regular trading with the eastern Mediterranean from as early as 8th century BC, and regular river and inland trading between southern Britain and the Mediterranean since 6th century BC. Where as the trading links, with the other Celtic regions was occasional and maritime.

Recorded History.

According to Caesar there are no contemporary religious writings from the Celts themselves because, as the Celts had a religious prohibition against writing things down, although they eventually kept trade related records using Greek characters. We must rely on the writings of others. A number of classical writers mentioned the Celts. The very first use of the term ‘Keltoi’ is by the Greek Hecataeus of Miletus around 500 BC. Most of these Greek and Roman authors whose works have survived didn’t have any first hand knowledge of the Celts. Most of the extant writing comes from the first two centuries of the common era, and rely on observations of the Stoic philosopher Posidonius, early 1st century BC, whose own writings have been lost. His information was based on first hand knowledge of Celtic society in Gaul. Scraps of his writings are contained in later writings, especially Athenaeus, Diodorus Siculus, mid 1st century BC and Strabo 40 BC-25 AD.

From Posidonius we learn that Celts subscribed to the Pythagorean idea of transmigration of the soul, which Caesar mentions as well though he couches it in terms of making the fighters unafraid of death. Julius Caesar had the opportunity to see Celts at first hand, both on the continent and in Britain, but his concerns were mainly military. His writings also served as propaganda to raise money for his campaign against them. He wasn’t particularly interested in religion other to note the influence of the Druids on the nobility. Caesar describes the Druids, saying they ‘officiate at the worship of the Gods, regulate public and private sacrifices, and give rulings on all religious questions. Large numbers of young men flock to them for instruction and they are held in great honour by the people. They act as judges in practically all disputes whether between tribes or between individuals.’ He also noted that the Druids had the power to ban someone from the sacrifice, which meant both excommunication and shunning by the community. He mentions that there are many and diverse deities but does not name them except to use the name of whichever Roman deity possessed similar attributes.

It is to Pliny the Elder, 1st century AD, that we owe our image of the Druids cutting mistletoe with a golden sickle. It was an afterthought on the mistletoe entry in his book on trees. The word he used was ‘sacerdos’ not Druid, and it was probably the Vates who would perform such a ritual. We get this division of the Celtic ‘priesthood’ from Strabo’s ‘Geographica’ written at the end of the 1st century BC, which states ‘Among all the Gallic peoples, generally speaking, there are three sets of men and women who are held in exceptional honour: the Bards, the Vates, and the Druids. The Bards are singers and poets; the Vates, diviners and natural philosophers; while the Druids, in addition to natural philosophy, study also moral philosophy.’

Additionally, Irish vernacular evidence does tend to support this three part division.

Classical sources tended to sensationalise Celtic religion. They were, after all writing about foreigners who were considered barbarians. Like today it’s the unconventional and ‘uncivilised’ information that received the most attention, there was little accurate information about the Celtic Deities, as the authors tended to use their own Gods, already understood by the populous, who they thought nearest to worship of the Celtic Gods. Again like today they were the sensationalist’s like Lucan 1st century AD, who reported that the three major Gods of the Gauls demanded human sacrifice, Taranis (burning),Teutates (drowning), and Esus (hanging and wounding). The Romans had banned human sacrifice only a generation or two earlier and this was reported, so the Romans could be seen to be superior beings, early propaganda.

The classical writers of the day also describe the Celt’s appearance, Diodorus tells of the men of the Gauls being tall and fair with loud voices and piercing eyes, and the women being nearly as big and strong and as fierce as their menfolk. Tacitus decribed the Caledonii of Scotland as having reddish hair and large loose limbs, the Silurians of Wales described as swarthy, with dark curly hair. Dio Cassius as large and frightening, with bright red hair, Strabo records that both sexes liked to wear lots of jewellery, this is confirmed by archaeological findings, showing heavy torcs, brooches, rings, necklets and bracelets.

An idealised picture of the classical Celt is best described by Virgil in the following quote, ‘Golden is their hair, and golden is their garb. They are resplendent in their striped cloaks, and their milk-white necks are circled in gold.’

Inscriptions on alters and votive objects provide almost 400 names of Celtic deities, unfortunately many of the names just appear the once, and have no evidence about the deity, others had descriptive epithets added to their names, others are paired to Roman deities, allows us to guess more accurately about their Celtic counterparts. Some classical Roman deities receive Celtic epithets, and classical Gods often received Celtic consorts.

The Celts were seen to have a hierarchy in the sense of a coherent pantheon dwelling in some remote place. The human world and the Otherworld formed a unity in which the human and divine interact. Each location has numinous powers which are acknowledged by the people as we can see by their naming of mountains, rivers and other natural features many of which have associated deities.

When the Celts invaded Greece in 278 BC, Brennus entered the precinct of Delphi, saw no gold and silver dedications, only stone and wooden statues and he laughed at the Greeks for setting up deities in human form. Caesar mentions that the Germans worship the forces of nature only.

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